董敏杰1 李钢2 梁泳梅2

(1中债资信评估有限责任公司

2中国社会科学院工业经济研究所)

【关键词】:工业环境全要素生产率;基于松弛的效率损失测度法;卢恩伯格生产率指数

JEL:D24 Q52

引 言

对中国工业环境全要素生产率的测算有助于更深刻的了解中国经济快速增长的动力。传统的全要素生产率的核算方法并没有考虑环境因素,难以反映全要素生产率的真实含义。在国内环境问题凸显、政府对环境问题日益重视的背景下,将环境因素纳入到全要素生产率的分析框架非常有必要。

对于全要素生产率的测算,传统的研究主要采用成本收益法、参数化的计量模型等方法。对于多投入多产出的环境问题而言,这些方法并不合适:成本收益法在不同投入要素与产出的权重选择上存在着主观性问题,参数化的计量模型受制于先验的方程形式与分布假设。数据包络分析方法(Data Envelopment Analysis,DEA)则较好的避免了这些问题,由于可以方便地将污染物引入分析框架,近年来DEA被广泛用来分析环境资源问题。

基于DEA的全要素生产率测算法多是建立在生产效率测算基础之上的:生产效率反映的是静态状况,将不同时期的效率指标进行组合计算,可以得到动态的全要素生产率指标。随着效率测算方法的改进,全要素生产率测算方法也相应改进。早期测算生产效率的方法是谢波德产出距离函数(Shepard Output Distance Function,SDF),与此相对应的全要素生产率测度指标为姆奎斯特生产率指数(Malmquist Productivity Index,MI)(F?re et al.,1994;Ray & Desli,1997),郑京海、刘小玄与Arne Bigsten(2002)、林毅夫与刘培林(2003)、颜鹏飞与王兵(2004)、王兵与颜鹏飞(2006)、郑京海与胡鞍钢(2005)、杨文举(2006)、涂正革与肖耿(2006)、章祥荪与贵斌威(2008)使用这一方法测算了中国的劳动生产率与全要素生产率。

由于没有考虑非合意产出,并且存在“基于投入”或“基于产出”的径向选择问题,MI难以用于分析环境全要素生产率。后来的方向性距离函数(Directional Distance Function Approach,DDF)可以假设合意产出增加和非合意产出同比例缩小,被许多研究用来测算环境生产效率,全要素生产率的测度指数也随之改进为曼姆奎斯特-卢恩伯格生产率指数(Malmquist-Luernberger Productivity Index,MLI)。运用ML指数,F?re et al. (2001)测算了1974-1986年美国制造业全要素生产率,Boyd, Tolley & Pang(2002)测算了美国器皿玻璃行业的FTP变化,Jeon & Sickles(2004)测算1980-1990年OECD和亚洲国家的生产率指数,Yoruk & Zaim(2005)测算了1983-1998年间OECD国家全要素生产率情况,Kumar (2006)考测算了41个发达国家和发展中国家全要素生产率,Yu et al.(2008) 测算了1995-1999年台湾地区四个主要机场的生产率,王兵、吴延瑞、颜鹏飞(2008)测算了APEC国家的FTP变化。针对中国的情况,Kaneko & Magani(2004)、Magani & Kaneko(2006)、陈诗一(2010)使用这种方法测算了中国的环境全要素生产率,杨俊、邵汉华(2009)利用此方法考察了考虑环境因素后的工业全要素生产率增长状况,周建、顾柳刘(2009)与陈茹、王兵、卢金勇(2010)则分别用此方法测算了上海以及东部地区的工业生产率增长状况。

MI及其变体LMI均是基于比值(ratio)的测算方法,这种方法适合考察总产出的变化情况,但对于诸如利润的“差值”变量,则难以反映其变化状况。Chambers(1996、2002)、Chambers、F?re & Grosskopf(1996)则提出了一种基于差值(difference)的全要素生产率测算指数,被称为卢恩伯格生产率指数(Luenberger Productivity Index,LI),Managi & Kaneko(2006、2009)与Fuji,Kaneko & Managi(2009)将其扩展,在其中加入了非合意产出因素,用以测度中国的环境全要素生产率。

无论是采用MI、LMI法还是LI法,前述研究测算的环境全要素生产率都是投入与非合意产出同时变化时的情形。尽管许多研究都对环境全要素生产率进行了分解,但多是按技术进步与技术效率进行分解,或者按纯效率变化、纯技术进步、规模效率变化和技术规模变化进行分解,鲜有文献测算各种要素,如投入的利用技术进步与技术利用效率提升、污染治理技术进步与技术利用效率提升对环境全要素生产率的贡献。

一、 研究框架

1. 考虑环境因素的生产可能集

低,因此,综合考虑合意产出与非合意产出时,C与D的生产效率未必低于E。根据生产可能性集的单调性、凸性以及合意产出与非合意产出的“零联合”处置(Chung, F?re & Grosskopf,1997)等假设,此时的生产可能性集为包络线OCDEF与x轴之间的部分,而包络线OCDEF即为生产可能性前沿面。

1. 环境生产效率的测度

显然,在非合意产出“弱处置”时,C、D、E是有效率的,而位于生产可能性前沿面之内的A则是低效率的。那么,怎样衡量单位A的效率损失呢?这就需要首先测算产出损失。产出损失的测算有多种方法,按照逻辑顺序,主要有谢波德产出距离函数(SDF)、方向性距离函数(DDF)、基于松弛量的方法(SBM)与基于松弛量的效率损失测度法(SBI)四种方法。这里主要介绍第四种方法,即基于松弛量的效率损失测度法。

根据Fukuyama & Weber(2009),同时考虑投入与合意产出的效率损失函数为:

(2)非合意产出。污染物包括许多种类,各研究选用的指标差异较大。Watanabe & Tanaka(2007)和涂正革(2008)选择的是SO2;胡鞍钢等(2008)选取了废水、工业固体废弃物排放总量、COD、SO2、CO2排放总量五个指标;Managi & Kaneko(2006)除了选择“三废”排放量之外,还考虑了工业废水中的COD、六价铬、铅以及工业废气中的SO2、工业烟尘、工业粉尘的排放量,王兵等(2010)、王兵与王丽(2010)选取的是COD与SO2。与王兵等(2010)、王兵与王丽(2010)一样,考虑到我国环境保护“十一五规划纲要”提出的“确保到2010年二氧化硫、化学需氧量比2005年削减10%”目标,同时各省市自治区在制定本地区的污染减排计划时,也都设定了二氧化硫与化学需氧量总量控制目标(吴舜泽等,2009),我们选择SO2和COD作为非合意产出指标。

1. 环境生产效率损失及其分解

从时间变化趋势来看,2000-2004年,全国的环境生产效率损失值在0.211-0.238之间波动,其中投入使用效率损失值IEx在0.060-0.077之间波动,污染治理效率损失值IEb在0.151-0.161之间波动;2005-2007年,生产效率损失值IE快速下降,大致位于0.16-0.19之间,这得益于投入使用效率损失值与污染治理效率损失值的同时下降,而污染效率损失值下降的贡献更大。2008年,受国际性金融危机的影响,投入使用效率损失值与污染治理效率损失值同时提高,导致环境生产效率损失急剧上升,与2000-2003年的水平基本相当。

具体到污染治理效率损失值,考察期内的平均值为0.143。从时间变化趋势来看,2001-2007年,污染治理效率损失值基本呈下降趋势,2001-2003年保持在0.160左右,2004年下降至0.151,2005-2007年进一步下降,2007年为0.126,2008年因为国际金融危机的影响则提高到0.140。COD排放效率损失值与SO2排放效率损失值在2001-2007年也基本呈下降趋势,分别从0.079与0.078降低到0.060与0.052,在2008年则提高至0.071与0.069。分区域来看,东部地区、东北地区、中部地区与西部地区的污染治理效率损失值分别为0.052、0.148、0.227与0.178,这表明,中西地区的生产技术落后是全面落后,不仅表现在劳动和资本的使用方面,而且体现在污染排放的控制与治理方面。

1. 污染治理生产率及其分解

一、 结论与政策含义

希望政府强化环境政策(薛进军、荒山裕行、彭近新,2002,pp.116)。在污染治理资金有限的条件下,将资金投入COD治理可能会取得更好的经济效益。李钢、马岩、姚磊磊(2010)也持相似观点,他们发现,中国废水(包括了COD)环境管制效益乘数远大于废气环境管制效益乘数,2007年两者相差近30倍。

分区域来看,东部地区往往扮演“先进者”的角色,东北、中部与西部地区更多的是扮演“追赶者”的角色。与东部地区相比,其他地区的生产技术落后是全面落后:不仅表现在技术进步方面,而且表现在技术利用效率方面;不仅表现在劳动利用生产率方面,而且表现在污染治理生产率方面。考虑到东北地区、中部地区与西部地区的资本利用效率与SO2治理技术利用率更低,在这些地区推广先进的资本利用技术与SO2治理技术,有助于全国工业环境全要素生产率的提升。

SO2治理技术的推广途径除了加强各地区的技术交流外,还可以尝试建立跨区域的排放权交易市场。相关实证研究发现,SO2边际处理成本在各省间存在较大差异(杨金田等,2004;Xu, Hyde & Ji,2010)。这主要是因为,当经济较发展水平较高、生产技术较先进时,重置给定资源来减排的空间越来越小,减少污染排放的代价较高(Lee, Park & Kim,2002);而经济发展水平较低、生产技术较为落后时,减少污染排放的代价较低。在跨区域的排放权交易市场中,由污染治理代价相对较低的企业(主要位于欠发达地区)向污染治理代价相对较高的企业(主要位于发达地区)出售污染排放配额,实质上是扩大了发达地区相对先进的SO2治理技术的使用范围,促进了先进治理技术在全国范围内的的推广使用。

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